1919 Events
January 3, 1919 - Buenos Aires
A strike for better working conditions at the Vasena metalworks turned ugly after strikers critically wounded a policeman. Soon a full-fledged workers’ uprising appeared to be erupting in Buenos Aires. RIGHT: Revolutionary Handbill, Bakers' Strike Committee,
Buenos Aires, January 1919. Gathered by US Legation staff. January 10, 1919 - Mexico City
Dr. Magnus, senior official at the German Consulate General, broadcast a cipher message instructing other German consular bureaus in Mexico (and probably Central America, too) to burn all unnecessary documents. The sole exceptions to the destruction order: cipher books, codes and cipher keys that were still in use. In other words, the armistice did not yet apply to overseas intelligence operatives. Nevertheless, Magnus’ message marked a milestone in the intelligence war in Latin America. Late January 1919 - Trujillo & Laredo, Peru
Strikes became so serious that the Peruvian government dispatched a cruiser to back up strike-breaking troops. German intelligence operatives were observed passing money to strike leaders. |
March 1919 - Lima & Buenos Aires
US surveillance determined that Japanese diplomats have employed the German intelligence network to build a quick foundation for their own hemispheric espionage network.
US surveillance determined that Japanese diplomats have employed the German intelligence network to build a quick foundation for their own hemispheric espionage network.
April 10, 1919 - Chinameca, Morelos, Mexico
General Emiliano Zapata Salazar, 39 year old icon of the peasants’ revolution, was assassinated by carrancísta soldiers in a devious ruse masterminded by General Pablo Gonzalez.
General Emiliano Zapata Salazar, 39 year old icon of the peasants’ revolution, was assassinated by carrancísta soldiers in a devious ruse masterminded by General Pablo Gonzalez.
June 24, 1911, Hotel Coliseo, Mexico City. Left to right: Tirso Espinosa, Gildardo Magana, M. Mejia, Abram Martinez, Jesus Jáuregui & Rodolfo Magana; seated: Eufemio Zapata (Emiliano's brother), Emiliano Zapata & Próculo Capistrán. (Source: Library of Congress; Roberto Duarte, 2012, & Mexican Revolution Photo Gallery).
April 29, 1919 - Washington, DC
US Enemy Trading Lists—the Black Lists—were suspended. Thousands of sanctioned businesses in Latin America are permitted to resume trade with the US—if they were fortunate enough to have survived the war.
US Enemy Trading Lists—the Black Lists—were suspended. Thousands of sanctioned businesses in Latin America are permitted to resume trade with the US—if they were fortunate enough to have survived the war.
May 1, 1919 - Buenos Aires & Lima
The World War accelerated the spread of revolutionary ideologies, and spawned larger crowds for May Day 1919 demonstrations in Argentina and Peru. May Day demonstrations in 1919 seethed with angry people determined to topple the rich elites, militarists and profiteers. Radical movements in Latin America had been envigored by the Russian Revolution’s success, but hardly needed external stimuli to inspire them. Oppression, inequality, poverty and social turmoil in Latin America spawned revolutionaries and radical movements aplenty, right and left. Counterintelligence analysts were bewildered by the many stripes of anarchists, syndicalists, anarcho-syndicalists, maximalists, Bolsheviks, communists and various brands of socialists, and filed them all as “Reds.”
The World War accelerated the spread of revolutionary ideologies, and spawned larger crowds for May Day 1919 demonstrations in Argentina and Peru. May Day demonstrations in 1919 seethed with angry people determined to topple the rich elites, militarists and profiteers. Radical movements in Latin America had been envigored by the Russian Revolution’s success, but hardly needed external stimuli to inspire them. Oppression, inequality, poverty and social turmoil in Latin America spawned revolutionaries and radical movements aplenty, right and left. Counterintelligence analysts were bewildered by the many stripes of anarchists, syndicalists, anarcho-syndicalists, maximalists, Bolsheviks, communists and various brands of socialists, and filed them all as “Reds.”
May 2, 1919 - Rio Frio, Costa Rica
This week in May 1919, a ragtag rebel army launched the Sapoa Revolution against the Costa Rican dictatorship of the Tinoco brothers. US intelligence suspected that the Tinocos’ pro-Allied pronouncements were a fascade to mask secret dealings with German interests. On May 2, 1919, a revolutionary patrol probing along Costa Rica’s border with Nicaragua defeated a unit of frontier guards on the Rio Frio. That same day, reports circulated that exiles had begun attacking Tinoco outposts on the southern border with Panama. A few days later the anti–Tinoco army entered Costa Rica from Nicaragua at Peñas Blancas, led by prominent opposition figures Julio Acosta, Jorge Volio, Manuel Castro Quesada and Manuel Chao. On May 8, a guerrilla attack at Santa Rosa—the same battlefield where William Walker was defeated in 1856—succeeded in capturing a large number of government weapons. Tinoco’s notorious and efficient intelligence service recognized the mounting danger but could not divine the timing. Accordingly the Costa Rican Army posted an estimated 5,000 to 8,000 soldiers in the border region and bolstered defensive positions along obvious routes of invasion from Nicaragua. The stage was set for another epic Battle of Santa Rosa on May 26.
This week in May 1919, a ragtag rebel army launched the Sapoa Revolution against the Costa Rican dictatorship of the Tinoco brothers. US intelligence suspected that the Tinocos’ pro-Allied pronouncements were a fascade to mask secret dealings with German interests. On May 2, 1919, a revolutionary patrol probing along Costa Rica’s border with Nicaragua defeated a unit of frontier guards on the Rio Frio. That same day, reports circulated that exiles had begun attacking Tinoco outposts on the southern border with Panama. A few days later the anti–Tinoco army entered Costa Rica from Nicaragua at Peñas Blancas, led by prominent opposition figures Julio Acosta, Jorge Volio, Manuel Castro Quesada and Manuel Chao. On May 8, a guerrilla attack at Santa Rosa—the same battlefield where William Walker was defeated in 1856—succeeded in capturing a large number of government weapons. Tinoco’s notorious and efficient intelligence service recognized the mounting danger but could not divine the timing. Accordingly the Costa Rican Army posted an estimated 5,000 to 8,000 soldiers in the border region and bolstered defensive positions along obvious routes of invasion from Nicaragua. The stage was set for another epic Battle of Santa Rosa on May 26.
June 4, 1919 - Punta Arenas & Limon, Costa Rica
US Marines landed at Punta Arenas and Limon, Costa Rica. The landing has been frequently maligned by uninformed writers and anti-American propagandists as an “invasion,” though it occurred to prevent an intrusion by Costa Rican dictator Federico Tinoco into Nicaragua to finish off Costa Rica’s wounded revolutionary army after the rebels’ defeat at the disastrous Battle of Jobo. President Wilson’s refusal to accept tyranny in Costa Rica—when most other Latin American governments acquiesced—has been forgotten. Since taking power in January 1917, Tinoco had enjoyed secret support from some mysterious source—some evidence pointed to oil prospectors, and other traces led to coffee-growers and exporters with ties to Germany. The token Marine landing bolstered support for a grassroots democratic opposition that would oust Tinoco two months later.
US Marines landed at Punta Arenas and Limon, Costa Rica. The landing has been frequently maligned by uninformed writers and anti-American propagandists as an “invasion,” though it occurred to prevent an intrusion by Costa Rican dictator Federico Tinoco into Nicaragua to finish off Costa Rica’s wounded revolutionary army after the rebels’ defeat at the disastrous Battle of Jobo. President Wilson’s refusal to accept tyranny in Costa Rica—when most other Latin American governments acquiesced—has been forgotten. Since taking power in January 1917, Tinoco had enjoyed secret support from some mysterious source—some evidence pointed to oil prospectors, and other traces led to coffee-growers and exporters with ties to Germany. The token Marine landing bolstered support for a grassroots democratic opposition that would oust Tinoco two months later.
Inside Costa Rica, US Consul Benjamin Chase and many North American expats were supportive of the anti-Tinoco opposition, some for idealistic reasons, some to reverse the dismal business environment under the dictatorship. In Washington, President Wilson’s hypocrisy was apparent only to diplomatic, intelligence and international commerce people: State Department snubbed Tinoco’s dictatorship in Costa Rica yet embraced Juan Vicente Gomez’ tyranny in Venezuela despite the latter’s intimate plotting with German agents (big oil made the difference in Venezuela). Washington had invested blood and treasure in supporting President Chamorro in Nicaragua, and Tinoco’s army employed a large number of zelayista exiles who may have decided to continue marching on Managua after destroying the battered Costa Rican revolutionaries near the border… A June 10, 1919 New York Times article (below) hinted at the truth. Thus the survivors of the Battle of Jobo precipitated the Marine landing, and the Marines coincidentally saved the revolutionaries. For a moment, it almost seemed like Wilson believed in his Mobile Speech of 1913… Not a tidy history, more like the fickle hand of Fate.
June 28, 1919 - Versailles, France
The Treaty of Versailles and Covenant of the League of Nations are signed by 11 Latin American republics, and six others are invited to accede to the covenant.
The Treaty of Versailles and Covenant of the League of Nations are signed by 11 Latin American republics, and six others are invited to accede to the covenant.
July 8, 1919 - Belize City, British Honduras
339 Belizean soldiers of the British West India Regiment returned home from the Mesopotamian Front. The volunteers had spent years away from their families in dangerous wartime circumstances, enduring overtly racist disrespect and exploitation from British military authorities, as well as death from enemy bullets and bombs. The gratitude that the soldiers had earned was not forthcoming during their first two weeks home. They rioted in Belize City on July 22, rampaging through the streets, breaking store windows to express their outrage at the years of abuse. The world war was over, but the long political struggle for equality was just beginning.
339 Belizean soldiers of the British West India Regiment returned home from the Mesopotamian Front. The volunteers had spent years away from their families in dangerous wartime circumstances, enduring overtly racist disrespect and exploitation from British military authorities, as well as death from enemy bullets and bombs. The gratitude that the soldiers had earned was not forthcoming during their first two weeks home. They rioted in Belize City on July 22, rampaging through the streets, breaking store windows to express their outrage at the years of abuse. The world war was over, but the long political struggle for equality was just beginning.
July 17, 1919 - Versailles, France
Frank Polk was appointed US Commissioner Plenipotentiary to Negotiate Peace. It seems appropriate that the man who founded State Department intelligence during the chaos of 1915 should help tie up the loose ends of the European empires in 1919. As State Department counselor, Polk had fostered intelligence-sharing between agencies, launched financial intelligence gathering, quietly mobilized government and industry to block German communications with Central and South America, and created a secret post war “organization for code and cipher work.”
Frank Polk was appointed US Commissioner Plenipotentiary to Negotiate Peace. It seems appropriate that the man who founded State Department intelligence during the chaos of 1915 should help tie up the loose ends of the European empires in 1919. As State Department counselor, Polk had fostered intelligence-sharing between agencies, launched financial intelligence gathering, quietly mobilized government and industry to block German communications with Central and South America, and created a secret post war “organization for code and cipher work.”
July 22, 1919 - Belize City, British Honduras
On July 8, 339 Belizean soldiers of the British West India Regiment returned home from the Mesopotamian Front of the world war. The volunteers had spent years away from their families in dangerous circumstances, enduring overtly racist disrespect and exploitation from British authorities. The gratitude that the soldiers had earned was not forthcoming. They rioted in Belize City on July 22, rampaging through the streets, breaking store windows to express their outrage at the years of abuse. The world war was over, but the long political struggle for equality was just beginning.
On July 8, 339 Belizean soldiers of the British West India Regiment returned home from the Mesopotamian Front of the world war. The volunteers had spent years away from their families in dangerous circumstances, enduring overtly racist disrespect and exploitation from British authorities. The gratitude that the soldiers had earned was not forthcoming. They rioted in Belize City on July 22, rampaging through the streets, breaking store windows to express their outrage at the years of abuse. The world war was over, but the long political struggle for equality was just beginning.
September 8, 1919 - Washington, DC
US Senator Albert Fall convened the Subcommittee for the Investigation of Mexican Affairs. While President Wilson stumped for ratification of the Versailles Treaty on an exhausting cross-country tour, Senator Fall’s subcommittee embarked on a coast-to-coast roadshow to hear testimony about outrages against Americans during the Mexican Revolution. There would be no shortage of witnesses: missionaries, farmers, businessmen, soldiers, intelligence officers, spies and a parade of victims made their way to hearings that relayed between Washington, New York City, San Antonio, Laredo, Brownsville, El Paso, Tucson, Nogales, Los Angeles and San Diego. Some American hawks—emboldened by victory over Germany--felt inclined to 'do something' about pesky Mexico, and tried to popularize the inflammatory slogan, “Mexico Next.” Every mention of troublesome Mexico distracted the public from Wilson’s League of Nations vision. Meanwhile, Mexican diplomats and intelligence agents closely followed the investigation drama and intimidated some potential witnesses into silence.
US Senator Albert Fall convened the Subcommittee for the Investigation of Mexican Affairs. While President Wilson stumped for ratification of the Versailles Treaty on an exhausting cross-country tour, Senator Fall’s subcommittee embarked on a coast-to-coast roadshow to hear testimony about outrages against Americans during the Mexican Revolution. There would be no shortage of witnesses: missionaries, farmers, businessmen, soldiers, intelligence officers, spies and a parade of victims made their way to hearings that relayed between Washington, New York City, San Antonio, Laredo, Brownsville, El Paso, Tucson, Nogales, Los Angeles and San Diego. Some American hawks—emboldened by victory over Germany--felt inclined to 'do something' about pesky Mexico, and tried to popularize the inflammatory slogan, “Mexico Next.” Every mention of troublesome Mexico distracted the public from Wilson’s League of Nations vision. Meanwhile, Mexican diplomats and intelligence agents closely followed the investigation drama and intimidated some potential witnesses into silence.
September 1919 - Jamaica, Barbados & Trinidad
The last soldiers of the British West Indies Regiment return home from Europe, shadowed by three Royal Navy cruisers to put down any defiant pro-democracy outbursts from the veterans.
The last soldiers of the British West Indies Regiment return home from Europe, shadowed by three Royal Navy cruisers to put down any defiant pro-democracy outbursts from the veterans.
Mid-October 1919 - Puebla, Mexico
US Consular Agent William O. Jenkins was kidnapped by a local zapatista affiliated with the pelaecístas, who demanded a $150,000 ransom and announced that he had selected a diplomatic victim to highlight the lack of law and order under Venustiano Carranza, even in Mexico’s second largest city. The Jenkins affair antagonized the carrancistas and pushed Mexico and the US a step closer to war. |
November 12, 1919 - Near Tampico, Mexico
Carrancísta inspectors directed Mexican soldiers to shut down drilling operations on eight recently drilled, unpermitted wells of 5 US companies.
Carrancísta inspectors directed Mexican soldiers to shut down drilling operations on eight recently drilled, unpermitted wells of 5 US companies.
December 3, 1919 - Washington, DC
US Senator Albert Fall presented a concurrent resolution to break diplomatic relations with Mexico, the first formal step towards war. Even Secretary of State Robert Lansing leaned in favor of war, yet preferred to defer severing diplomatic relations until the William O. Jenkins affair was resolved in Puebla.
US Senator Albert Fall presented a concurrent resolution to break diplomatic relations with Mexico, the first formal step towards war. Even Secretary of State Robert Lansing leaned in favor of war, yet preferred to defer severing diplomatic relations until the William O. Jenkins affair was resolved in Puebla.
December 5, 1919 - Washington, DC and Puebla, Mexico
US Senator Albert Fall visited the White House on December 5 to see if the stroke-ridden President Woodrow Wilson was even cognizant of the nation’s precarious situation vis a vis Mexico. Just as Fall began harping about schemes of Mexican intelligence in the United States, a presidential aide entered and informed them all that Consular Agent William O. Jenkins had just been released from a carrancísta jail in Puebla. The news deflated Fall’s argument for war against Carranza’s Mexico. Was Jenkins’ release mere coincidence? Perhaps, but Mexico had a capable intelligence network in the US and closely followed politics in Washington. Ambassador Ignacio Bonillas oversaw intelligence-gathering in the Washington area and reported daily to President Carranza about US politics.
US Senator Albert Fall visited the White House on December 5 to see if the stroke-ridden President Woodrow Wilson was even cognizant of the nation’s precarious situation vis a vis Mexico. Just as Fall began harping about schemes of Mexican intelligence in the United States, a presidential aide entered and informed them all that Consular Agent William O. Jenkins had just been released from a carrancísta jail in Puebla. The news deflated Fall’s argument for war against Carranza’s Mexico. Was Jenkins’ release mere coincidence? Perhaps, but Mexico had a capable intelligence network in the US and closely followed politics in Washington. Ambassador Ignacio Bonillas oversaw intelligence-gathering in the Washington area and reported daily to President Carranza about US politics.
Copyright 2019, Jamie Bisher.